1.3. Deep-Survey Number Counts and the Fraction of the Cosmic X-ray Background Resolved
Based on deep surveys with Chandra and XMM-Newton,
number-count relations have now been determined down to 0.5-2, 2-8, and
5-10 keV fluxes of about 2.3 × 10-17,
2.0 × 10-16, and
1.2 × 10-15 erg cm-2 s-1,
respectively (e.g.,
Brandt et al. 2001b;
Hasinger et al. 2001;
Cowie et al. 2002;
Rosati et al. 2002b;
Moretti et al. 2003;
Bauer et al. 2004).
Figure 3 shows the integral number counts in the
0.5-2 and 2-8 keV bands. At bright fluxes the integral counts have
power-law slopes in the range
b
1.6 ± 0.2,
depending on the sample selection (compare, e.g., the discussions about
bright-end slopes in
Hasinger et al. 1998 and
Moretti et al. 2003).
Toward fainter
0.5-2 and 2-8 keV fluxes, the integral counts show significant
cosmological flattening with faint-end slopes of
f
0.4-0.6 and break
fluxes of
(1-2) ×
10-14 and
(3-8) ×
10-15 erg cm-2 s-1,
respectively. In the 5-10 keV band a flattening has not yet been
detected; the faint-end number counts continue rising steeply
(
f
1.2-1.4) indicating
that a significant fraction of the 5-10 keV CXRB remains unresolved (e.g.,
Rosati et al. 2002b).
![]() |
Figure 3. (a) Number of sources, N( > S), brighter than a given flux, S, for the 0.5-2 keV band. The black circles are from the ROSAT Lockman Hole study of Hasinger et al. (1998), the solid black curve is from the Chandra Deep Fields study of Bauer et al. (2004), and the dotted black "fish" region shows the Chandra Deep Field-North fluctuation analysis results of Miyaji & Griffiths (2002). The dashed curves show number counts for AGN (red), only type 1 AGN (blue), and starburst and normal galaxies (green) from Bauer et al. (2004) and Hasinger, Miyaji & Schmidt (2005). (b) N( > S) versus S for the 2-8 keV band. The black circles are from the ASCA Large Sky Survey study of Ueda et al. (1999), the black triangles are from the ChaMP study of Kim et al. (2004), the solid black curve is from the Chandra Deep Fields study of Bauer et al. (2004), and the dotted black "fish" region shows the Chandra Deep Field-North fluctuation analysis results of Miyaji & Griffiths (2002). The dashed curves show number counts for AGN (red) and starburst and normal galaxies (green) from Bauer et al. (2004). |
There is some evidence for field-to-field variations of the number counts.
Such variations are expected at some level due to "cosmic variance"
associated with large-scale structures that have been detected
in the X-ray sky (e.g.,
Barger et al. 2003a;
Gilli et al. 2003,
2004;
Yang et al. 2003).
For example, while the CDF-N and Chandra Deep Field-South (CDF-S)
number counts agree in the 0.5-2 keV band
and at bright 2-8 keV fluxes, there is up to
3.9
disagreement for 2-8
keV fluxes below
1 ×
10-15 erg cm-2 s-1
(Cowie et al. 2002;
Rosati et al. 2002b;
Bauer et al. 2004).
The number counts for the shallower Lockman Hole
(Hasinger et al. 2001)
and Lynx
(Stern et al. 2002a)
fields agree with those for the Chandra Deep
Fields to within statistical errors, while those for the SSA13
(Mushotzky et al. 2000)
field appear to be
40% higher in the
2-8 keV band (see
Tozzi et al. 2001).
An extensive comparison of
field-to-field number counts by
Kim et al. (2004)
finds little evidence for cosmic variance at 0.5-2 keV (2-8 keV) flux
levels of
10-15-10-13 erg cm-2 s-1
(
10-14-10-12 erg cm-2 s-1)
in
5-125 ks
Chandra observations.
The deepest ROSAT surveys resolved
75% of the 0.5-2 keV
CXRB into discrete sources, the major uncertainty in the resolved fraction
being the absolute flux level of the CXRB (at low energies it is
challenging to separate the CXRB from Galactic emission; see
McCammon & Sanders
1990).
Deep Chandra and XMM-Newton surveys
have now increased this resolved fraction to
90% (e.g.,
Moretti et al. 2003;
Bauer et al. 2004;
Worsley et al. 2004).
Above 2 keV the situation is complicated by the fact that
the 1 background spectrum
(Marshall et al. 1980),
used as a reference for many years, has a
30% lower
normalization than several earlier and later background measurements
(see, e.g.,
Moretti et al. 2003).
Recent determinations of the background spectrum with RXTE
(Revnivtsev et al. 2003)
and XMM-Newton
(De Luca & Molendi
2004)
strengthen the consensus for a 30% higher
normalization, indicating that many past resolved fractions
above 2 keV must be scaled down correspondingly.
Additionally, X-ray telescopes typically have a
large sensitivity gradient across the broad 2-10 keV band.
A recent investigation by
Worsley et al. (2004),
dividing the CDF-N,
CDF-S, and XMM-Newton Lockman Hole field into finer energy bins,
concludes that the resolved fraction drops from
80-90% at 2-6 keV to
50-70% at 6-10
keV. This is consistent with expectations from
the 5-10 keV number counts (see above).
In the critical 10-100 keV band, where most of the CXRB energy
density resides, only a few percent of the background has been
resolved (e.g.,
Krivonos et al. 2004).
Multiwavelength identification studies indicate that
most ( 70%) of the
X-ray sources found in deep
Chandra and XMM-Newton surveys are AGN (see
Section 2.1 for further discussion).
The observed AGN sky density in the deepest X-ray surveys,
the Chandra Deep Fields, is a remarkable
7200 deg-2
(e.g.,
Bauer et al. 2004).
This exceptional effectiveness at finding
AGN arises largely because X-ray selection (1) has reduced
absorption bias, (2) has minimal dilution by host-galaxy starlight, and
(3) allows concentration of intensive optical spectroscopic follow-up
upon high-probability AGN with faint optical counterparts (i.e., it
is possible to probe further down the luminosity function);
see Section 2.4 and
Mushotzky (2004)
for further details on the
effectiveness of AGN X-ray selection. The AGN sky density
from the Chandra Deep Fields exceeds that found at
any other wavelength and is 10-20 times higher than that found in the
deepest optical spectroscopic surveys (e.g.,
Wolf et al. 2003;
Hunt et al. 2004);
only ultradeep optical variability studies (e.g.,
Sarajedini, Gilliland &
Kasm 2003)
may be generating comparable AGN sky densities.