Clusters of Galaxies

From EINSTEIN and ROSAT data as well as from new (especially southern) optical data many new clusters have been identified. Also, for other X-ray satellites with good spectral capabilities like GINGA or TENMA extensive data on known clusters have been obtained.

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There are also many new optical and radio surveys.

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The extensive X-ray data have revealed that in clusters, different from single galaxies, the dark matter is most concentrated, less concentrated are the galaxies, and least concentrated is the hot gas, in mass larger than the galaxy population. The dark matter is consistently inferred from integrating the hydrostatic equation from the hot and extended gas measurements, and also from the gravitational lensing of background galaxies leading to the conclusion that near 90% of the gravitational mass in clusters is in dark matter.

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The intergalactic gas in clusters has been enriched by recycling through early starbursts and star formation in galaxies,

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which presumably leads to a direct ejection of hot gas from the energy input by the many young supernovae - as seen in, e.g., M82, see below. This extended hot gas cools through the observed radiation and thus slowly accretes towards the center in many clusters, producing a cooling flow.

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The structure and its evolution, as well as the luminosity function of galaxies in clusters yield important clues on their history and formation.

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Cannibalism and merging as well as slow continuous star formation in the central dominant galaxy can lead to giant ellipticals with extended stellar halos, extending throughout the cluster, the cD galaxies.

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The hot gas in clusters is capable of stripping the outer gas from traversing galaxies leading to a deficiency in HI but a weaker deficiency in the molecular gas more centrally concentrated in each galaxy.

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Dynamos strengthen weak seed magnetic fields in the intergalactic gas in clusters to measureable and quite appreciable strengths.

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Substructure of the galaxy distribution both in real space as in velocity space can lead to an appreciable overestimate of the true velocity dispersion when averaging over different substructure elements .

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The strong interaction, partial merging and stripping of galaxies may explain the alignment that is sometimes apparent in the orientation between galaxy forms.

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Arcs of not understood origin may be sometimes gravitational lenses, light echos, sometimes gaseous features, and, occasionally, stripped parts of the stellar population of galaxies like the shells and ripples seen around ellipticals.

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Special studies have been dedicated to nearby clusters like Virgo,

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and Coma

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