![]() | Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 2006. 44:
xxx-xxx Copyright © 2006 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved |
The ETGs treated in this review can only be studied in integrated light, hence the interpretation of their photometric and spectroscopic properties needs population synthesis tools. Pioneering unconstrained synthesis using "quadratic programming" (e.g., Faber 1972), was soon abandoned in favor of evolutionary population synthesis, whose foundations were laid down by Beatrice Tinsley in the 1970s (Tinsley & Gunn 1976, Tinsley 1980, Gunn, Stryker & Tinsley 1981). Much progress has been made in the course of the subsequent quarter of a century, especially thanks to the systematic production of fairly complete libraries of stellar evolutionary sequences and stellar spectra.
Several modern population synthesis tools are commonly in use today, including those of Worthey (1994), Buzzoni (1995), Bressan, Chiosi, & Tantalo (1996), Maraston (1998, 2005), Bruzual & Charlot (2003), Fioc & Rocca Volmerange (1997, PEGASE Code), Vázques & Leitherer (2005, Starburst99 Code), Vazdekis et al. (2003), and González Delgado et al. (2005). Though far more reliable than earlier generations of models, even the most recent tools still may suffer from incomplete spectral libraries (especially at high metallicity and for nonsolar abundance ratios), and poorly calibrated mass loss in advanced stages, such as the asymptotic giant branch (AGB). Yet, there is fair agreement among the various models, with the exception of those for ages around ~ 1 Gyr, when the contribution by AGB stars is at maximum, and Maraston's models (calibrated on Magellanic Cloud clusters) give appreciably higher near-IR fluxes than the other models.
Only a few "rules of thumb" regarding population synthesis models can be recalled here, which may be useful in guiding the reader through some of the subtleties of their comparison with the observations.
No evolutionary
population synthesis code is perfect. Evolutionary
tracks are not perfect and stellar libraries are never really
complete. So, any code deficiency will leave its imprint on the
results, generating a distortion of the age/metallicity grids used to
map plots of one observable versus another. Inevitably, such
distortions will leave their imprint in the results, and to some extent
may lead to spurious correlations/anticorrelations when reading ages
and metallicities from overplotted data points.
Ages derived from
best fits to simple
stellar populations (SSPs, i.e., single burst populations) are always
luminosity-weighted ages, and in general are more sensitive to the
youngest component of the real age distribution. SSP ages should be
regarded as lower limits.
Spectra and colors of
SSPs are fairly
insensitive to the initial mass function (IMF), because most of the
light comes from stars in a narrow mass interval around the mass of
stars at the main sequence turnoff.
The time evolution of the
luminosity of a SSP does depend on the IMF, and so does the mass-to-light
ratio (M / L). For example, a now fashionable IMF that
flattens below ~
0.6 M
(e.g.,
Chabrier 2003)
gives M / L ratios a factor of ~ 2 lower than a straight
Salpeter IMF.
Stellar ages and
metallicities are the main quantities that the
analyses of colors and integrated spectra of galaxies are aimed to
determine. Yet, for many observables, age and metallicity are largely
degenerate, with a reduced age coupled to an increased metallicity
conjuring to leave the spectral energy distribution nearly
unchanged. This results primarily from the color (temperature) of the
main sequence turnoff, e.g., (B - V)TO, (the
true clock of SSPs) being almost equally sensitive to age and metallicity
changes. Indeed, from stellar isochrones one can derive that
(
log t /
[Fe/H])(B
- V)TO
-0.9 -0.35[Fe/H], and a
factor of 2 error in estimated metallicity produces a factor ~ 2 error
in age
(Renzini 1992).
Red giant branch stars are the major contributors of bolometric
luminosity in old stellar populations, and their locus shifts to lower
temperatures with both increasing age and metallicity, further
contributing to the degeneracy. Thus, from full SSPs, Worthey (1994)
estimated that a factor of 3 error in metallicity generates a factor of
2 error in age when using optical colors as age indicators, the
so-called 2/3 rule. Several strategies have been devised to circumvent this
difficulty and break the age-metallicity degeneracy (see below).
There are
occasionally ambiguities in what is meant by the M / L
ratio in the tabulated values. The mass M can be defined either
as the mass of gas that went into stars, or the mass of the residual
population at age t, including the mass in dead remnants (i.e., the
original mass diminished by the mass lost by stars in the course of
their evolution), or even the mass of the surviving stars, i.e.,
without including the mass in remnants. Caution should be paid when
using tabular values, as different authors may adopt different
definitions.
The power of stellar population diagnostics stems from the opportunity to age-date the stellar content of galaxies in a fashion that is independent of cosmological parameters. Then, once a cosmology is adopted, ages derived from observations at a lower redshift can be used to predict the properties of the stellar populations of ETGs at a higher one, including their formation redshift. Thus, ages derived for the local elliptical galaxies imply a well-defined color, spectral, and luminosity evolution with redshifts, which all can be subject to direct observational test. The extent to which a consistent picture of ETG formation is emerging from low- and high-redshift observations is the main underlying theme of this review.