Published in Space Science Reviews, Volume 214, Issue 1, article id. #32, 69 pp, 2018.
https://arxiv.org/abs/1801.00598

For a PDF version of the article, click here.

Abstract: The formal division of the distance indicators into primary and secondary leads to difficulties in description of methods which can actually be used in two ways: with, and without the support of the other methods for scaling. Thus instead of concentrating on the scaling requirement we concentrate on all methods of distance determination to extragalactic sources which are designated, at least formally, to use for individual sources. Among those, the Supernovae Ia is clearly the leader due to its enormous success in determination of the expansion rate of the Universe. However, new methods are rapidly developing, and there is also a progress in more traditional methods. We give a general overview of the methods but we mostly concentrate on the most recent developments in each field, and future expectations.

Keywords Distance scale - galaxies: distances and redshifts - stars: Supernovae

Table of Contents

• INTRODUCTION
• SUPERNOVAE IA
• Early History of SNe
• SN Ia as Standardize-able Candles
• SN Ia as Cosmological Probes
• SN 2017cbv: A Recent `local' SN Ia
• The `local' Sample in Context
• In the Hubble Flow
• Progenitors
• Extinction/Color Corrections for Type-Ia Supernovae
• Summary
• SUPERNOVAE II
• Introduction
• Physical basis of the EPM and SCM method
• Current calibrations: an overview
• Discussion and final remarks
• TULLY-FISHER AND FABER-JACKSON METHODS
• SURFACE BRIGHTNESS FLUCTUATIONS
• ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI
• Water masers
• Continuum reverberation
• BLR reverberation
• Extragalactic distances based on dust reverberation of AGNs
• Luminosity distance based on the dust reverberation
• Trigonometric parallax for the dust torus
• Single epoch methods
• Continuum shape method
• X-ray excess variance method
• GALAXY CLUSTER DISTANCE VIA X-RAY AND SUNYAEV-ZEL'DOVICH EFFECT
• SZE/X-ray technique applications: the Hubble constant
• The search for two numbers: H₀ and q₀
• The search for new physics
• GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
• ASTRONOMICAL DISTANCES FROM GRAVITATIONAL-WAVE OBSERVATIONS
• CONCLUSIONS
• REFERENCES

B. Czerny
Center for Theoretical Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Al. Lotnikow 32/46, 02-668 Warsaw, Poland

R. Beaton
The Observatories of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, 813 Santa Barbara St., Pasadena, CA 91101, USA

M. Bejger
Copernicus Astronomical Center, Polish Academy of Sciences, Bartycka 18, 00-716 Warsaw, Poland

E. Cackett
Department of Physics & Astronomy, Wayne State University, 666 W. Hancock St, Detroit, MI 48201, USA

M. Dall'Ora
INAF, Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte, via Moiariello 16, 80131 Napoli, Italy

R. F. L. Holanda
Departamento de Física, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, 49100-000, Aracaju - SE, Brazil

J. B. Jensen
Utah Valley University

S. W. Jha
Department of Physics and Astronomy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA

E. Lusso
INAF - Arcetri Astrophysical Observatory, Largo E. Fermi 5, I-50125 Firenze, Italy
Centre for Extragalactic Astronomy, Department of Physics, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK

T. Minezaki
Institute of Astronomy, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo 181-0015, Japan

G. Risaliti
INAF - Arcetri Astrophysical Observatory, Largo E. Fermi 5, I-50125 Firenze, Italy

M. Salaris
Astrophysics Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, IC2, Liverpool Science Park, 146 Brownlow Hill, Liverpool L3 5RF, UK

S. Toonen
Anton Pannekoek Institute for Astronomy, University of Amsterdam, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Y. Yoshii
Institute of Astronomy, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo 181-0015, Japan,
Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, 933 North Cherry Avenue, Room N204, Tucson, AZ 85721-0065, USA